Kin 

M  UNIVERSITY  OF  KANSAS, 

LAWKEN^^  stora 


WATER  SURVEY. 

Circular  Number  One. 


I  .  v  ) 

Information  Regarding  the  Collection  of  Water  Samples, 
the  Interpretation  of  Analyses  and  the 
Sanitation  of  Water  Supplies. 


BY 

FREDERICK  H.  BILLINGS, 
Professor  of  Bacteriology , 

AND 

CLIFFORD  C.  YOUNG, 
Director  of  the  Water  Survey. 


STATE  PRINTING  OFFICE, 
TOPEKA,  1918. 

5-798 


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FOREWORD. 


This  booklet  has  been  prepared  primarily  for  Kansas  munic¬ 
ipal  officials  and  county  health  officers,  for  whom  examination 
of  water  supplies  is  made  by  the  University  laboratories  in 
the  interest  of  public  health.  To  these  and  to  any  others  in¬ 
terested  in  wholesome  water,  who  may  have  occasion  to  send 
samples  to  Lawrence  for  examination,  attention  is  specially 
called  to  the  necessity  of  following  in  strictest  detail  the  di¬ 
rections  for  collection  and  shipment  of  samples;  since  it  is 
only  by  utmost  care  in  all  the  steps  leading  to  a  final  inter- 
pietation  that  error  can  be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

(3) 


\ 


“V 

V 

5 


F/l to  top  of 
ground  j/ass 


Bacteriological  Shipping  Case,  Portable  Refrigerator. 

Cross  Section. 


Chemical  Shipping  Case. 
Cross  Section. 


SANITARY  WATER  ANALYSIS. 


Steps  in  the  Process  of  Making  an  Examination  of  a  Sample  of 

Water. 

The  various  steps  concerned  in  the  complete  process  of  de¬ 
termining  the  sanitary  quality  of  a  shipped  sample  of  water 
may  be  enumerated  as  follows : 

1.  Sterilization  of  the  glass  containers  in  the  University 
laboratory. 

2.  Shipment  of  the  containers  and  portable  refrigerator  to 
the  sampler  at  the  water  supply  to  be  examined. 

3.  Collection  of  the  samples. 

4.  Icing  of  the  portable  refrigerator. 

5.  Shipment  of  the  iced  samples  to  the  University  at  Law¬ 
rence. 

6.  Bacteriological  and  chemical  examination  of  the  samples. 

7.  Interpretation  of  the  results. 

8.  Recording  and  giving  notice  of  interpretation. 

The  third,  fourth  and  fifth  steps  are  those  in  which  the  party 
at  the  water  supply  to  be  examined  is  directly  concerned,  and 
it  is  for  such  that  explicit  directions  are  herewith  given. 


Collection  of  Samples  for  Bacteriological  Examination. 

Handling  the  Containers.  Great  care  must  be  exercised  so 
as  to  avoid  bringing  the  hand  or  other  object  against  the  parts 
of  the  bottles  which  come  into  contact  with  the  water.  Hold 
the  stopper  by  the  handle  when  collecting  a  sample.  Do  not 
lay  it  down.  The  glass  around  the  mouth  of  the  bottles  should 
also  be  protected.  Unstopper  the  bottles  only  when  ready  to 
put  the  water  in,  and  stopper  them  immediately  afterward. 
Fill  only  to  the  top  of  the  ground  glass. 

Time  for  Collection  of  Samples.  Ascertain  the  time  of  de¬ 
parture  of  a  train  that  makes  the  best  connection  to  Law¬ 
rence;  then  collect  just  before  such  departure. 

(5) 


6 


University  of  Kansas. 


Collection  of  Samples  from  a  Pump.  Use  the  pump  for  at 
least  three  minutes  just  before  sampling,  taking  care  that  the 
waste  water  is  carried  to  a  distance  so  that  it  will  not  wash 
back  into  the  well  or  cistern.  Collect  the  water  directly  into 
the  bottle. 

Collection  of  Samples  from  a  Bucket.  Draw  up  three  or 
four  buckets  of  water  and  allow  the  water  to  waste,  using  care 
that  the  water  does  not  wash  back  into  the  well.  Pour  from 
the  bucket  directly  into  the  bottle. 

Collection  of  Samples  from  a  Faucet.  Allow  the  water  to 
run  at  least  three  minutes;  then  collect  the  sample  directly 
into  the  bottle. 

Collection  of  Samples  from  a  Reservoir,  Lake  or  River.  Re¬ 
move  the  stopper  of  the  bottle,  hold  the  bottle  by  the  bottom, 
and  plunge  it  mouth  downwards  into  the  water  to  a  depth  of 
about  six  inches ;  then  turn  it  horizontally,  and  as  it  fills  move 
the  bottle  mouth  forwards  and  then  upwards.  In  other  words, 
do  not  let  any  washings  from  the  hand  enter  the  bottle. 

Icing  the  Portable  Refrigerator  ( Shipping  Case) .  Examine 
construction  of  case  carefully.  Place  as  large  a  piece  of  ice 
as  possible  in  bottom  of  case ;  then  fill  in  with  cracked  ice  un¬ 
til  the  case  will  just  close  easily. 

Shipment  of  the  Samples.  The  samples  should  be  routed  by 
express,  so  that  they  will  reach  the  laboratories  as  soon  as  pos¬ 
sible  after  collection.  They  should  be  shipped  so  that  they 
will  arrive  in  Lawrence  before  Thursday  of  each  week.  Water 
samples  are  classed  in  “Scale  K”  by  the  express  companies. 

Collection  of  Samples  for  Chemical  Analysis.  The  same  care 
should  be  observed  in  collection  of  chemical  samples  as  when 
collecting  water  for  bacteriological  examination.  The  bottle 
should  be  filled  to  overflowing;  water  emptied  out,  then  filled 
to  the  neck  of  the  bottle  for  shipment. 

Shipment  of  Samples  for  Chemical  Analysis.  Chemical  sam¬ 
ples  must  be  shipped  with  the  bacteriological  samples. 


Scope  and  Interpretation  of  Bacteriological  Analysis. 

Sanitary  examination  of'  water  is  made  along  two  distinct 
lines — bacteriological  and  chemical.  The  former  attempts  to 
show  the  presence  or  absence  of  sewage  contamination 
through  the  finding  of  living  bacteria  that  are  characteristic 
of  sewage.  A  sanitary  chemical  analysis,  on  the  other  hand, 
does  not  take  living  bacteria  into  consideration,  but  attempts 
to  show  by  the  presence  or  proportion  of  certain  chemical  sub¬ 
stances  that  sewage  has  found  entrance  into  a  water  supply. 


Water  Survey. 


7 


As  the  constituents  of  sewage-contaminated  water  that  are 
directly  detrimental  to  human  safety  are  the  pathogenic  mi¬ 
crobes  of  some  infectious  disease,  the  most  direct  evidence  of 
the  unfitness  of  such  water  for  human  consumption  would  be 
the  detection  of  such  microbes  in  a  water  supply. 

All  sewage  and  sewage-contaminated  water,  however,  con¬ 
tains  the  wastes  from  human  bodies,  and  as  such  wastes  are 
almost  sure,  sooner  or  later,  to  contain  the  bacteria  of  infec¬ 
tious  disease,  the  demonstration  of  merely  the  presence  of  fresh 
sewage  in  a  water  supply  is  enough  to  condemn  it.  For  this 
reason,  most  of  the  bacteriological  examination  is  directed  to¬ 
ward  detecting  microbes  that  normally  inhabit  the  intestine 
instead  of  detecting  those  of  specific  disease.  This  is  a  safe 
procedure,  since  water-borne  diseases,  such  as  typhoid,  dysen¬ 
tery,  and  cholera,  have  their  seat  of  activity  in  the  intestine. 
Specific  organisms  of  these  diseases  have  come  from  persons 
specifically  affected ;  hence  there  is  more  or  less  uncertainty 
attending  the  search  for  such  bacteria,  unless  there  is  an  epi¬ 
demic.  The  specific  disease  microbes,  however,  are  always 
associated  with  those  normally  found  in  the  intestine,  so  that 
for  the  purposes  of  sanitary  analysis,  the  presence  of  the  latter 
implies  the  former.  The  normal  intestinal  bacteria  that  serve 
as  a  basis  for  the  detection  of  sewage  contamination  are  those 
belonging  to  the  Bacillus  coli  group. 


Scope  and  Interpretation  of  Sanitary  Chemical  Analysis. 

The  chemical  determinations  that  in  general  constitute  a 
sanitary  chemical  analysis  are:  the  amount  and  character  of 
suspended  matter ;  oxygen  consumed ;  oxygen  dissolved ;  nitro¬ 
gen  as  albuminoid  ammonia  (so-called)  ;  nitrogen  as  free  am¬ 
monia  ;  nitrogen  as  nitrites ;  nitrogen  as  nitrates ;  and  chlorine. 
The  results  are  expressed  in  parts  of  the  substance  determined 
in  a  million  parts  of  water. 

The  object  of  these  determinations  is  to  find  out  whether  or 
not  organic  material  from  sewage  has  gained  entrance  to  the 
source  from  which  the  water  of  any  supply  is  drawn. 

Organic  matter  of  this  kind  is  readily  acted  upon  by  bacteria, 
and,  during  the  decomposition,  compounds  are  formed  which 
can  be  identified  and  determined  with  accuracy  by  chemical 
methods.  The  decomposition  products  of  nitrogen-containing 
organic  matter  are  the  ones  that  can  be  determined  most  accu¬ 
rately. 

Nitrogen  in  albumin-like  compounds  (or  that  which  is  liber¬ 
ated  by  alkaline  potassium  permanganate)  indicates  the  pres¬ 
ence  or  absence  of  undecomposed  animal  or  vegetable  material 
containing  proteins.  Any  abnormal  amount  of  these  com¬ 
pounds  shows  that  the  water  is  polluted. 


8 


University  of  Kansas. 


Nitrogen  as  free  ammonia  in  any  considerable  quantity 
shows  that  the  bacterial  action  on  the  protein  compounds  has 
been  carried  further,  and  that  ammonia  compounds  or  urea 
are  present.  Some  exceptions  to  this  statement  are  well  known. 

Nitrogen  as  nitrites  yields  the  information  that  the  bacterial 
process  has  gone  a  step  further,  and  that  the  oxidation  of  the 
nitrogen  is  taking  place;  or,  in  case  nitrates  are  present,  that 
reduction  has  probably  been  going  on. 

Nitrogen  as  nitrates  shows  that  the  organic  material  has 
been  completely  transformed  to  a  mineral  salt  which  is  rela¬ 
tively  stable. 

On  the  Atlantic  coast  the  chlorine  determination  is  of  great 
value  as  an  indicator  of  contamination  by  animal  excrement 
(urine  contains  salt),  for  every  district  has  a  normal  value  for 
chlorine.  Any  excess  over  this  normal  amount  shows  that  the 
water  is  receiving  drainage  which  probably  contains  urine. 
The  determination  is  of  little  value  in  the  Middle  West  on  ac¬ 
count  of  the  salt  beds  underlying  the  country. 

The  oxygen  consumed  tells  us  how  much  oxygen  is  necessary 
to  completely  oxidize  any  undecomposed  organic  matter.  The 
oxygen  dissolved  is  the  amount  of  oxygen  in  the  water  available 
for  use  in  oxidation,  if  given  time. 

One  can  not  set  a  standard  for  the  exact  amount  of  any  or  all 
of  these  substances  that  are  allowable  in  a  water.  Each  an¬ 
alyst  must  judge  whether  or  not  the  water  is  contaminated 
from  the  relative  amounts  as  shown  by  the  analyses. 

From  this  statement  it  will  be  apparent  that  it  is  ridiculous 
to  express  the  results  of  an?  sis  in  per  cent  of  purity.  It  is 
misleading  to  say  that  a  wate  is  99.96  per  cent  pure,  for,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  sewage  fro.  a  city  does  not  often  vary  more 
than  one-hundredth  of  a  per  c<  from  the  water  supply. 


Scope  of  a  Technical  Analysis  of  Water. 

Every  natural  water  contains  some  minerals  in  solution 
which  affect  more  or  less,  depending  on  their  nature,  the  value 
of  a  water  for  domestic  or  industrial  supply.  It  is  the  object 
of  a  technical  analysis  to  determine  how  much  and  what  kind 
of  salts  are  present. 

Hard  waters  are  those  containing  calcium  (lime)  and  mag¬ 
nesium  salts  or  iron  in  sufficient  quantities  to  interfere  in 
steam-making  or  general  household  use.  Their  soap-destroy¬ 
ing  power  is  enormous. 

Temporary  hardness  is  that  portion  of  the  salts  dissolved  in 
a  water  that  can  be  removed  on  boiling.  These  salts  are  cal¬ 
cium  bicarbonate  and  magnesium  bicarbonate.  The  calcium 
(Ca),  magnesium  (Mg)  and  hydrocarbonate  (HCO3)  deter¬ 
minations  give  us  the  desired  information. 


Water  Survey. 


9 


Permanent  hardness  is  that  portion  of  the  salts  which  re¬ 
mains  in  solution  after  boiling.  They  are  usually  calcium  sul¬ 
phate,  magnesium  sulphate,  calcium  chloride,  magnesium 
chloride,  calcium  nitrate,  and  magnesium  nitrate.  The  sul¬ 
phate  (SO4),  nitrate  (NOs),  chlorine  (Cl),  are  the  determina¬ 
tions  necessary  to  find  the  permanent  hardness. 

Iron  discolors  plumbing  fixtures,  fabrics  in  washing,  tea  and 
coffee  in  cooking,  and  imparts  an  inky  taste  to  the  water. 


Sanitation  of  Water  Supply. 

From  very  remote  times,  a  good  water  supply  has  been  con¬ 
sidered  one  of  the  greatest  blessings.  Since  the  fight  of  Isaac’s 
herdsmen  for  the  wells  of  Gerar  down  to  present-day  litigation, 
its  possession  has  been  subject  to  contention.  Possibly  good 
water  was  of  more  frequent  occurrence  among  patriarchal 
tribes  in  their  nomadic  life  than  in  our  modern  settled  habita¬ 
tions.  At  all  events,  the  growth  of  civilization  has  pressed 
upon  us  the  problem  of  combating  the  contamination  of  water 
supply. 

HOW  THE  QUALITY  OF  WATER  IS  JUDGED. 

The  quality  of  water  has  generally  been  judged  by  its  degree 
of  sparkle,  of  turbidity,  of  temperature,  and,  since  the  intro¬ 
duction  of  soap,  of  hardness.  These  standards  have  their 
value,  but  they  are  considered  by  sanitarians  to  be  superficial 
criteria  for  determining  wholesomeness.  Water  may  be  hard, 
warm,  flat  and  turbid,  and  yet  be  safe  to  drink.  It  may  also  be 
soft,  cold,  clear  and  sparkling,  and  still  carry  infection.  Whole¬ 
someness  depends  upon  comparative  absence  of  salts  and  or¬ 
ganic  matter  deleterious  to  health.  Injurious  salts,  while  in¬ 
ducing  disturbances  of  a  more  or  less  discomforting  nature, 
even  causing  permanent  injury  if  long  continued,  do  not 
create  such  serious  consequences  as  polluting  organic  matter, 
especially  if  this  takes  the  form  of  pathogenic  microorganisms. 

It  is  believed  that  decaying  animal  refuse,  draining  from  gar¬ 
bage  heaps,  barnyards,  piggeries,  manured  fields,  cesspools, 
privy  vaults,  and  the  like,  may  occasion  sickness  when  it  finds 
its  way  into  a  water  supply ;  but  an  equal  degree  of  danger  does 
not  exist  in  all  of  these  sources  of  filth.  Animal  manure  and 
garbage  are  in  a  class  by  themselves,  in  that  they  are  not  liable 
to  contain  the  germs  of  disease  that  would  produce  infection 
in  man  through  water.  Cesspools  and  privy  vaults  are  in  an¬ 
other  class,  since  they  are  open  to  infection  by  bacteria  par¬ 
ticularly  pathogenic  for  man.  Water  containing  such  germs 
assumes  its  most  menacing  aspect,  especially  if  under  the  in¬ 
sidious  guise  of  a  cold  and  sparkling  beverage. 

It  would  be  desirable,  of  course,  if  every  source  of  water 


10 


University  of  Kansas. 


supply  could  be  examined  by  a  sanitary  bacteriologist  in  order 
to  determine  the  liability  of  contamination ;  but  so  huge  is  the 
task  that  the  solution  of  the  question  in  many  instances  must 
be  left  to  the  intelligent  judgment  of  the  resident  himself. 
Bacteriological  analysis,  moreover,  though  the  most  reliable 
we  have,  may  fail  at  times  to  tell  the  whole  truth,  especially 
if  too  infrequently  made.  Such  analysis  is  concerned  usually 
with  the  detection  of  the  colon  bacillus,  an  intestinal  organism 
indicating  fecal  contamination,  and  condemning  water  by  its 
presence,  because  of  occasional  association  with  infectious  mi¬ 
crobes  of  the  same  habitat.  Of  such,  one  kind  is  the  well- 
known  Bacillus  typhosus ,  the  source  of  typhoid  fever,  which, 
in  this  country,  is  the  principal  water-borne  disease.  Its  germ 
is  found  in  the  intestines  of  typhoid  patients,  of  convalescents, 
and,  for  a  while,  of  those  who  have  fully  recovered.  It  is  be¬ 
lieved,  also,  to  occur  sometimes  in  healthy  people  who  have 
never  been  known  to  have  had  the  fever.  The  excrement  of 
all  such  individuals  is  laden  with  the  specific  organisms,  and 
becomes  exceedingly  dangerous  to  others  if  its  disposal  is  im¬ 
properly  cared  for.  In  rural  districts  it  usually  finds  lodg¬ 
ment  in  privy  vaults,  cesspools,  or  on  the  ground,  from  any  of 
which  permeations  or  washings  containing  living  bacilli  may 
find  their  way  into  some  water  supply.  As  the  specific  germ 
of  typhoid  is  known  to  emanate  only  from  infected  persons  who 
constitute  but  a  small  percentage  of  the  average  community, 
the  majority  of  country  water  supplies,  even  though  otherwise 
contaminated,  would  be  incapable  of  creating  an  outbreak  of 
this  particular  disease.  Typhoid,  moreover,  is  not  limited  to 
water  as  a  means  of  transmission,  for  contact  and  infected 
food  play  their  part.  But,  after  all  has  been  said,  it  still  re¬ 
mains  true  that  water  has  often  been  a  serious  source  of  in¬ 
fection,  causing  numerous  epidemics  and  disastrous  loss  of 
life. 

THE  WATER  SUPPLY  OF  THE  AVERAGE  MAN. 

The  average  man,  when  confronted  with  an  adverse  analysis 
of  his  water  supply,  is  liable  to  be  surprised,  declaring  that 
it  is  the  best  in  the  country,  and  that  it  has  been  used  for  years 
without  producing  illness.  Granting  that  he  be  right,  immu¬ 
nity  in  the  past  is  no  guaranty,  unfortunately,  for  the  present 
or  future.  In  his  case,  some  connection  has  evidently  become 
established  between  well  and  outhouse  or  cesspool,  and  ap¬ 
parently  he  has  not  happened  to'  harbor  a  typhoid-infected  per¬ 
son  on  the  premises.  There  is  nothing  needed  now  but  the 
carrier  of  the  specific  organism  to  begin  the  trouble. 

Rural  water  supply  is  generally  obtained  from  springs, 
wells  or  cisterns.  From  a  sanitary  standpoint,  springs  and 
deep  wells — deep  in  the  sense  of  penetrating  below  the  first 
impervious  stratum — are  the  most  reliable  sources.  The  usual 


Water  Survey. 


11 


excellence  of  these,  and,  in  fact,  of  all  good  ground  water,  is 
largely  due  to  the  filtering  property  of  the  soil.  Springs,  espe¬ 
cially  those  flowing  through  fissures,  and  deep  wells  reap  the 
benefit  of  prolonged  filtration  through  earth.  But  both  may 
be  subject  to  contamination,  particularly  springs,  which  are 


Diagram  Illustrating  Relations  between  Water  Supply  and  Sewage 

Disposal  in  the  Country. 

a,  Stable  with  adjacent  well,  liable  to  contamination  from  surface  washings  and  ground 
seepage,  d,  House  with  sewage  drain  to  the  surface,  s,  Spring  in  danger  of  contam¬ 
ination  from  drain  just  above.  g,  House  with  properly  placed  well  and  outhouse. 
c,  House  with  cesspool,  apparently  properly  placed  on  lower  ground,  but  because  of 
adjacent  formation,  the  well  is  liable  to  contamination.  The  well  at  house  g  is  in  little 
danger  from  the  cesspool  because  of  the  intervening  impervious  stratum  of  earth  or 
rock  (i,  i),  an  impervious  stratum  whose  relations  to  sanitation  are  important. 


often  open  to  surface  washings  from  sewage  drains,  and  the 
like,  located  farther  up  the  slope.  Hence  it  is  advisable  to  in¬ 
spect  the  watershed  above  a  spring ;  also,  to  guard  it  from  the 
surface  washings  by  a  wall  or  ditch. 

THE  DANGER  THAT  LURKS  IN  A  BADLY  LOCATED  WELL. 

Driven  wells  and  dug  wells  reach  only  to  ground  water, 
differing  in  this  respect  from  many  springs  and  all  deep  wells. 
Their  shallowness  brings  them  at  times  into  proximity  to 
drainage  from  privy  vaults,  cesspools  or  leaky  drains,  and  any 
one  sinking  a  well  near  these  sources  of  filth  must  rely  upon  the 
filtering  action  of  the  soil  to  remove  pathogenic  bacteria. 
The  filtering  efficiency  of  the  soil,  in  serving  to  protect  wells 
from  contamination,  depends  upon  such  factors  as  the  extent 
and  the  nature  of  the  intervening  soil  and  also  upon  direction 
of  ground-water  drainage.  The  distance  that  should  exist 
between  a  well  and  a  source  of  pollution  is,  because  of  these,  so 
variable  that  probably  no  definite  rule  would  be  trustworthy  in 
all  localities,  other  than  the  greater  the  distance  the  better. 
Nevertheless,  from  experiments  conducted  by  the  writers  for 
the  purpose,  one  hundred  feet  was  found  to  be  the  least  dis¬ 
tance  compatible  with  safety.  A  less  distance  would  doubtless  be 
safe  in  certain  instances,  but  greater  risk  would  be  incurred  of 
encountering  or  establishing  direct  connection  through  cracks 
or  passages  in  the  subsoil.  Pumping  a  well,  moreover,  lowers 
the  water  table  about  it,  causing  drainage  from  adjacent  soil 
toward  itself  as  a  center.  Contaminating  material  within  the 


12 


University  of  Kansas. 


radius  of  this  flow  would  thereby  be  drawn  toward  the  water 
supply. 

The  course  of  ground-water  drainage  toward  its  natural  out¬ 
let  affects  the  liability  of  a  well  to  pollution.  While  it  usually 
follows  the  direction  of  the  superficial  slope,  it  may  take  a 
different  route,  owing  to  peculiar  subsoil  formation.  There¬ 
fore,  while  it  is  better  to  locate  a  well  on  higher  ground  than  a 
cesspool  or  outhouse,  it  is  also  prudent  to  have  a  safe  distance 
intervening  as  an  additional  precaution. 

Driven  and  dug  wells,  though  similar  underground  in  point 
of  possibility  of  contamination,  differ  materially  when  danger 
of  surface  pollution  is  considered.  Driven  wells  are  compara¬ 
tively  secure,  while  dug  wells,  open  above,  or  covered  with  loose 
boards,  through  which  filth  may  sift,  or  else  with  low  and  de¬ 
fective  curbs,  invite  every  sort  of  objectionable  material  that 
may  fall  or  wash  in.  For  this  reason,  dug  wells  are  respon¬ 
sible  for  a  greater  extent  of  typhoid  infection  than  any  other 
source  of  rural  water  supply. 

PROTECTION  OF  WELLS. 

The  necessity  of  protecting  wells  absolutely  against  any 
chance  of  pollution  from  surface  drainage  or  infiltration  of 
water  just  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  a  well-known 
principle  of  sanitary  science.  However,  the  hazy  ideas  that 
are  prevalent  as  to  ways  and  means  of  effecting  this  protec¬ 
tion  have  led  to  making  the  following  notes  on  construction  of 
wells : 

The  curb  of  the  well  should  be  twelve  to  fourteen  inches 
above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  At  the  surface  of  the  ground 
there  should  be  a  platform  of  concrete  or  stone,  sloping  away 
from  the  walls  of  the  well.  The  edge  of  this  platform  should  be 
at  least  four  feet  from  the  wall.  The  walls  themselves  should 
be  so  constructed  that  no  water  can  pass  through  them  without 
having  percolated  through  at  least  eight  to  twelve  feet  of  soil, 
depending  upon  the  character  of  the  soil.  The  top  of  the  well 
should  be  covered  with  a  water-tight  cover  of  wood,  concrete  or 
stone.  If  wood  is  used,  nothing  should  be  considered  but  ship- 
lap  or  tongue-and-groove  lumber. 

Figures  1  and  2  show  designs  approved  by  the  Rural  District 
Council  of  Chelmsford,  England.  The  first  admits  of  very  lit¬ 
tle  variation  in  material,  bell  and  spigot  vitrified  clay  pipe  be¬ 
ing  used.  The  second  allows  considerable  variation  in  ma¬ 
terial,  depending  on  local  conditions.  Paving  brick  are  pref¬ 
erable  to  concrete  or  stone. 

Bored,  drilled  or  driven  wells  usually  have  a  shallow  pit  to 
protect  the  pumping  apparatus  from  frost.  These  all  should 
be  constructed  and  protected  with  as  much  care  as  the  dug  well. 
Drainage  entering  this  pit,  either  by  the  direct  route  of  falling 
through  the  cover  or  percolating  through  a  few  inches  of  soil, 


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is  cumulative  and  will  follow  the  path  of  least  resistance  down 
the  casing  and  in  time  grossly  pollute  the  water  below. 

Old  wells  can  be  remodeled  by  raising  the  curb  and  digging 
out  the  dirt  on  the  outside  of  the  wells,  and  then  plastering  the 
walls  with  cement  plaster — two  parts  sand  and  one  part  of 
cement.  The  well  should  then  be  encased  with  clay  puddle  or 
concrete.  The  final  step  would  be  a  platform  on  the  surface  of 
the  ground  sloping  away  from  the  well. 

By  carefully  following  these  directions  and  locating  the  well 
at  least  100  feet  from  a  privy  or  cesspool,  there  need  be  little 
danger  of  having  a  contaminated  well  unless  the  ground  water 
itself  is  polluted  by  larger  sources  than  privy  or  cesspool.  Or 
again,  the  privy  or  cesspool  may  be  in  the  same  water  level 
that  furnishes  the  well  with  water.  In  this  case  the  well 
should  be  abandoned  at  once. 

Cisterns,  if  underground  and  near  leaky  drains,  cesspools, 
and  the  like,  are  exposed  to  conditions  similar  to  wells,  when 
they  are  not  water-tight,  and  few  of  them  are.  In  the  South, 
where  mild  winters  prevail,  cisterns  are  usually  above  ground, 
and  are,  therefore,  not  subject  to  soil  pollution.  Both  kinds, 
however,  are  filled  by  roof  washings,  which,  if  not  allowed  to 
run  to  waste  at  the  beginning  of  a  storm,  may  carry  refuse  of 
an  undesirable  though  not  infectious  kind.  Cistern  water  has 
been  known  to  be  a  vehicle  for  typhoid,  but  it  is  not  so  probable 
a  source  of  danger  in  this  respect  as  a  dug  well.  Charcoal  and 
other  types  of  filters  often  impart  a  false  sense  of  protection, 
inasmuch  as  they  are  of  little  value  unless  cleaned  frequently, 
preferably  after  each  rain.  Due  care  with  regard  to  location, 
to  entrance  water,  and  to  cleansing,  should  insure  good  water 
from  a  cistern. 

Finally,  it  may  be  said  that  the  maintenance  of  wholesome 
water  supply  of  any  kind  requires  constant  watching.  To  dig  a 
hole  to  water  anywhere,  and  expect  good  results  forever  after¬ 
ward,  is  unreasonable.  With  the  exercise  of  common  sense, 
based  on  the  knowledge  of  ordinary  sanitary  principles,  a 
person  should  live  in  comparative  security  from  water-borne 
disease. 


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University  op  Kansas 


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